The Material-to-Electrode Translation in Ceramic–Carbon Hybrid Supercapacitor Electrodes: From Intrinsic Charge-Storage Capability to Practical Electrode Performance

Kazazi, Mahdi; Ghavami, Robab

doi:10.30501/acp.2026.603569.1210

The Material-to-Electrode Translation in Ceramic–Carbon Hybrid Supercapacitor Electrodes: From Intrinsic Charge-Storage Capability to Practical Electrode Performance

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

Mahdi Kazazi ¹^{, 2}

Robab Ghavami ³^{, 4}

¹ Associate Professor, Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Malayer University, P.O. Box 65719-95863, Malayer, Iran.

² Associate Professor, Department of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Malayer University, P.O. Box 65719-95863, Malayer, Iran.

³ MSc, Department of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Malayer University, P.O. Box 65719-95863, Malayer, Iran.

⁴ MSc, Department of Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Malayer University, P.O. Box 65719-95863, Malayer, Iran.

10.30501/acp.2026.603569.1210

Abstract

Hybrid supercapacitor electrodes that combine redox-active ceramic or ceramic-related phases with conductive carbon are commonly evaluated based on material properties, such as theoretical charge-storage capability, surface area, and conductivity, alongside measured electrode properties, such as capacitance and rate capability. However, these descriptors do not directly determine practical electrode performance. This review argues that a material-to-electrode translation pathway separates intrinsic charge-storage capability from the measured electrode response. This pathway encompasses hybrid integration, electrode architecture and interfaces, and coupled electron and ion transport. Electrolyte accessibility, reaction distribution, and active-material utilization link these features to practical electrode capacitance, while degradation can alter these conditions during cycling. Carbon is therefore considered part of a functional electrode framework rather than merely a conductive additive. It can provide electronic pathways, influence pore connectivity and electrolyte access, support interfacial contact, and affect the spatial distribution of the ceramic phase. This review synthesizes these coupled effects across ceramic–carbon hybrid electrodes and distinguishes material-level potential from electrode-level utilization and practical performance. Particular attention is given to the effects of electrode thickness, active-material loading, tortuosity, interfacial quality, and reaction heterogeneity. A translation-aware design framework is proposed to connect intrinsic material selection with specified loading, condition-dependent utilization, cycling stability, and independently validated device performance. This perspective shifts electrode development from the isolated optimization of material descriptors toward testable comparisons of the factors that enable or limit active-material participation.

Keywords

Hybrid Supercapacitors

Ceramic-Carbon Electrodes

Active-Material Utilization

Electrode Architecture

Interfacial Transport

Subjects

Composite

1. Augustyn, V., Simon, P., & Dunn, B. (2014). Pseudocapacitive oxide materials for high-rate electrochemical energy storage. Energy & Environmental Science, 7(5), 1597. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ee44164d

2. Bao, L., Li, T., Chen, S., Peng, C., Li, L., Xu, Q., Chen, Y., Ou, E., & Xu, W. (2017). 3D Graphene Frameworks/Co3O4Composites Electrode for High‐Performance Supercapacitor and Enzymeless Glucose Detection. Small, 13(5), 1602077. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201602077

3. Béguin, F., Presser, V., Balducci, A., & Frackowiak, E. (2014). Carbons and Electrolytes for Advanced Supercapacitors. Advanced Materials, 26(14), 2219-2251. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201304137

4. Berrueta, A., Ursua, A., Martin, I. S., Eftekhari, A., & Sanchis, P. (2019). Supercapacitors: Electrical Characteristics, Modeling, Applications, and Future Trends. IEEE Access, 7, 50869-50896. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2908558

5. Brousse, T., Bélanger, D., & Long, J. W. (2015). To Be or Not To Be Pseudocapacitive?. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 162(5), A5185-A5189. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0201505jes

6. Chen, C.-Y., Fan, C.-Y., Lee, M.-T., & Chang, J.-K. (2012). Tightly connected MnO2–graphene with tunable energy density and power density for supercapacitor applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 22(16), 7697. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2jm16707g

7. Chen, J., Xu, J., Zhou, S., Zhao, N., & Wong, C.-P. (2016). Nitrogen-doped hierarchically porous carbon foam: A free-standing electrode and mechanical support for high-performance supercapacitors. Nano Energy, 25, 193-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2016.04.037

8. Chmiola, J., Yushin, G., Gogotsi, Y., Portet, C., Simon, P., & Taberna, P. L. (2006). Anomalous Increase in Carbon Capacitance at Pore Sizes Less Than 1 Nanometer. Science, 313(5794), 1760-1763. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132195

9. Conway, B. E. (1999). Electrochemical supercapacitors: Scientific fundamentals and technological applications. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-3058-6

10. Drummond, R., Huang, C., Grant, P.S., & Duncan, S.R. (2019). Overcoming diffusion limitations in supercapacitors using layered electrodes. Journal of Power Sources, 433, 126579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.04.107

11. Farahani, F., Fazlali, A., & Kazazi, M. (2025). Enhanced supercapacitive performance of NiHCF/GO hybrid electrode prepared by layer-by-layer chemical deposition method. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 1022, 179882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2025.179882

12. Fleischmann, S., Mitchell, J. B., Wang, R., Zhan, C., Jiang, D.-E., Presser, V., & Augustyn, V. (2020). Pseudocapacitance: From Fundamental Understanding to High Power Energy Storage Materials. Chemical Reviews, 120(14), 6738-6782. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00170

13. Forse, A. C., Griffin, J. M., Merlet, C., Carretero-Gonzalez, J., Raji, A.-R. O., Trease, N. M., & Grey, C. P. (2017). Direct observation of ion dynamics in supercapacitor electrodes using in situ diffusion NMR spectroscopy. Nature Energy, 2(3), 16216. https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2016.216

14. Gaikwad, P., Tiwari, N., Kamat, R., Mane, S. M., & Kulkarni, S. B. (2024). A comprehensive review on the progress of transition metal oxides materials as a supercapacitor electrode. Materials Science and Engineering: B, 307, 117544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2024.117544

15. Ge, Y., Liu, Z., Wu, Y., & Holze, R. (2021). On the utilization of supercapacitor electrode materials. Electrochimica Acta, 366, 137390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.137390

16. Geng, P., Zheng, S., Tang, H., Zhu, R., Zhang, L., Cao, S., Xue, H., & Pang, H. (2018). Transition Metal Sulfides Based on Graphene for Electrochemical Energy Storage. Advanced Energy Materials, 8(15), 1703259. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703259

17. Gogotsi, Y., & Simon, P. (2011). True Performance Metrics in Electrochemical Energy Storage. Science, 334(6058), 917-918. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1213003

18. Gopi, C. V.V.M., Alzahmi, S., Al-Haik, M. Y., Kumar, Y. A., Hamed, F., Haik, Y., & Obaidat, I. M. (2024). Recent advances in pseudocapacitive electrode materials for high energy density aqueous supercapacitors: Combining transition metal oxides with carbon nanomaterials. Materials Today Sustainability, 28, 100981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2024.100981

19. Hou, L., Yang, W., Li, R., Xu, X., Wang, P., Deng, B., Yang, F., & Li, Y. (2020). Self-reconstruction strategy to synthesis of Ni/Co-OOH nanoflowers decorated with N, S co-doped carbon for high-performance energy storage. Chemical Engineering Journal, 396, 125323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.125323

20. Hu, L., Chen, W., Xie, X., Liu, N., Yang, Y., Wu, H., Yao, Y., Pasta, M., Alshareef, H. N., & Cui, Y. (2011). Symmetrical MnO2–Carbon Nanotube–Textile Nanostructures for Wearable Pseudocapacitors with High Mass Loading. ACS Nano, 5(11), 8904-8913. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn203085j

21. Hu, Y., Guan, C., Ke, Q., Yow, Z. F., Cheng, C., & Wang, J. (2016). Hybrid Fe2O3Nanoparticle Clusters/rGO Paper as an Effective Negative Electrode for Flexible Supercapacitors. Chemistry of Materials, 28(20), 7296-7303. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemmater.6b02585

22. Huang, Y., Shi, T., Zhong, Y., Cheng, S., Jiang, S., Chen, C., Liao, G., & Tang, Z. (2018). Graphene-quantum-dots induced NiCo2S4 with hierarchical-like hollow nanostructure for supercapacitors with enhanced electrochemical performance. Electrochimica Acta, 269, 45-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2018.02.145

23. Huang, Z.-H., Song, Y., Feng, D.-Y., Sun, Z., Sun, X., & Liu, X.-X. (2018). High Mass Loading MnO2with Hierarchical Nanostructures for Supercapacitors. ACS Nano, 12(4), 3557-3567. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.8b00621

24. Jeong, H. M., Choi, K. M., Cheng, T., Lee, D. K., Zhou, R., Ock, I. W., Milliron, D. J., Goddard, W. A., & Kang, J. K. (2015). Rescaling of metal oxide nanocrystals for energy storage having high capacitance and energy density with robust cycle life. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(26), 7914-7919. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1503546112

25. Jia, H., Cai, Y., Lin, J., Liang, H., Qi, J., Cao, J., Feng, J., & Fei, W. (2018). Heterostructural Graphene Quantum Dot/MnO2Nanosheets toward High‐Potential Window Electrodes for High‐Performance Supercapacitors. Advanced Science, 5(5), 1700887. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700887

26. Jiang, H., Lee, P. S., & Li, C. (2013). 3D carbon based nanostructures for advanced supercapacitors. Energy Environ. Sci., 6(1), 41-53. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ee23284g

27. Jiang, L., Qiu, Y., Luo, P., & Yu, Y. (2016). Nickel hydroxide-impregnated and -coated carbon nanotubes using an easily manipulated solvothermal route for supercapacitors. Ceramics International, 42(10), 11634-11639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.04.064

28. Jiang, Y., He, C., Qiu, S., Zhang, J., Wang, X., & Yang, Y. (2020). Scalable mechanochemical coupling of homogeneous Co3O4 nanocrystals onto in-situ exfoliated graphene sheets for asymmetric supercapacitors. Chemical Engineering Journal, 397, 125503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.125503

29. Jiang, Y., & Liu, J. (2019). Definitions of Pseudocapacitive Materials: A Brief Review. ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIALS, 2(1), 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12028

30. Junaqani, J. R., Kazazi, M., Shahraki, M. J. S., & Chermahini, M. D. (2022). Enhanced Pseudocapacitive Performance of Chemically Deposited β-Ni(OH)2 Nanoflakes on 3D Graphene Oxide Framework. JOM, 74(3), 808-816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-021-05099-7

31. Kazazi, M. (2017). Facile preparation of nanoflake-structured nickel oxide/carbon nanotube composite films by electrophoretic deposition as binder-free electrodes for high-performance pseudocapacitors. Current Applied Physics, 17(2), 240-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cap.2016.11.028

32. Kazazi, M., Fakhari, M. J., & Moradi, B. (2023). Hierarchically Electrodeposited Spinel Cobalt Oxide Nanoflakes on 3D Graphene Oxide Framework as a High-Performance Pseudocapacitor Electrode. JOM, 75(9), 3277-3284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-023-05823-5

33. Kazazi, M., & Faryabi, M. (2020). Electrochemically anchored manganese hexacyanoferrate nanocubes on three-dimensional porous graphene scaffold: Towards a potential application in high-performance asymmetric supercapacitors. Journal of Power Sources, 449, 227510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227510

34. Kazazi, M., Sedighi, A. R., & Mokhtari, M. A. (2018). Pseudocapacitive performance of electrodeposited porous Co3O4 film on electrophoretically modified graphite electrodes with carbon nanotubes. Applied Surface Science, 441, 251-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.02.054

35. Korkmaz, S., & Kariper, İ. A. (2020). Graphene and graphene oxide based aerogels: Synthesis, characteristics and supercapacitor applications. Journal of Energy Storage, 27, 101038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2019.101038

36. Kress, T., Liu, X., & Forse, A. C. (2026). Pore network tortuosity controls fast charging in supercapacitors. Nature Materials, 25(3), 440-446. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02404-6

37. Kumar, S., Saeed, G., Zhu, L., Hui, K. N., Kim, N. H., & Lee, J. H. (2021). 0D to 3D carbon-based networks combined with pseudocapacitive electrode material for high energy density supercapacitor: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal, 403, 126352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126352

38. Largeot, C., Portet, C., Chmiola, J., Taberna, P.-L., Gogotsi, Y., & Simon, P. (2008). Relation between the Ion Size and Pore Size for an Electric Double-Layer Capacitor. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 130(9), 2730-2731. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja7106178

39. Leng, C., Zhao, Z., Song, Y., Sun, L., Fan, Z., Yang, Y., Liu, X., Wang, X., & Qiu, J. (2021). 3D Carbon Frameworks for Ultrafast Charge/Discharge Rate Supercapacitors with High Energy-Power Density. Nano-Micro Letters, 13(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00535-w

40. Li, Q., Guo, J., Xu, D., Guo, J., Ou, X., Hu, Y., Qi, H., & Yan, F. (2018). Electrospun N‐Doped Porous Carbon Nanofibers Incorporated with NiO Nanoparticles as Free‐Standing Film Electrodes for High‐Performance Supercapacitors and CO2Capture. Small, 14(15), 1704203. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201704203

41. Li, S., Cheng, P., Luo, J., Zhou, D., Xu, W., Li, J., Li, R., & Yuan, D. (2017). High-Performance Flexible Asymmetric Supercapacitor Based on CoAl-LDH and rGO Electrodes. Nano-Micro Letters, 9(3), 31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-017-0134-8

42. Li, S., Yang, K., Ye, P., Ma, K., Zhang, Z., & Huang, Q. (2020). Three-dimensional porous carbon/Co3O4 composites derived from graphene/Co-MOF for high performance supercapacitor electrodes. Applied Surface Science, 503, 144090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144090

43. Liu, L., Niu, Z., & Chen, J. (2018). Flexible supercapacitors based on carbon nanotubes. Chinese Chemical Letters, 29(4), 571-581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2018.01.013

44. Liu, Y., Xin, N., Yang, Q., & Shi, W. (2021). 3D CNTs/graphene network conductive substrate supported MOFs-derived CoZnNiS nanosheet arrays for ultra-high volumetric/gravimetric energy density hybrid supercapacitor. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 583, 288-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2020.08.128

45. Lukatskaya, M. R., Kota, S., Lin, Z., Zhao, M.-Q., Shpigel, N., Levi, M. D., Halim, J., Taberna, P.-L., Barsoum, M. W., Simon, P., & Gogotsi, Y. (2017). Ultra-high-rate pseudocapacitive energy storage in two-dimensional transition metal carbides. Nature Energy, 2(8), 17105. https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.105

46. Lukatskaya, M. R., Mashtalir, O., Ren, C. E., Dall’Agnese, Y., Rozier, P., Taberna, P. L., Naguib, M., Simon, P., Barsoum, M. W., & Gogotsi, Y. (2013). Cation Intercalation and High Volumetric Capacitance of Two-Dimensional Titanium Carbide. Science, 341(6153), 1502-1505. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1241488

47. Lv, H., Gao, X., Xu, Q., Liu, H., Wang, Y.-G., & Xia, Y. (2017). Carbon Quantum Dot-Induced MnO2Nanowire Formation and Construction of a Binder-Free Flexible Membrane with Excellent Superhydrophilicity and Enhanced Supercapacitor Performance. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 9(46), 40394-40403. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b14761

48. Lyu, L., Seong, K.-D., Kim, J. M., Zhang, W., Jin, X., Kim, D. K., Jeon, Y., Kang, J., & Piao, Y. (2019). CNT/High Mass Loading MnO2/Graphene-Grafted Carbon Cloth Electrodes for High-Energy Asymmetric Supercapacitors. Nano-Micro Letters, 11(1), 88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-019-0316-7

49. Ma, H., Kong, D., Xu, Y., Xie, X., Tao, Y., Xiao, Z., Lv, W., Jang, H. D., Huang, J., & Yang, Q.H. (2017). Disassembly–Reassembly Approach to RuO2/Graphene Composites for Ultrahigh Volumetric Capacitance Supercapacitor. Small, 13(30), 1701026. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201701026

50. Ma, Y., Chen, W., Zhang, P., Teng, F., Zhou, J., Pan, X., & Xie, E. (2014). Ni(OH)2nanosheets grown on a 3D graphene framework as an excellent cathode for flexible supercapacitors. RSC Adv., 4(88), 47609-47614. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra08786k

51. Mazloomian, K., Dore, T. R., Lancaster, H. J., Howard, C. A., & Miller, T. S. (2026). Synthetic Engineering of Manganese Oxide–Carbon Nanocomposites for Maximized Metal Utilization in Supercapacitors. ENERGY & ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIALS, 9(2), e70162. https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.70162

52. Meng, A., Yuan, X., Shen, T., Zhao, J., Song, G., Lin, Y., & Li, Z. (2020). Amorphous nickel sulfide nanoparticles anchored on N-doped graphene nanotubes with superior properties for high-performance supercapacitors and efficient oxygen evolution reaction. Nanoscale, 12(7), 4655-4666. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9nr09654j

53. Miller, J. R., & Simon, P. (2008). Electrochemical Capacitors for Energy Management. Science, 321(5889), 651-652. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1158736

54. Nie, G., Zhao, X., Luan, Y., Jiang, J., Kou, Z., & Wang, J. (2020). Key issues facing electrospun carbon nanofibers in energy applications: on-going approaches and challenges. Nanoscale, 12(25), 13225-13248. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0nr03425h

55. Noori, A., El-Kady, M. F., Rahmanifar, M. S., Kaner, R. B., & Mousavi, M. F. (2019). Towards establishing standard performance metrics for batteries, supercapacitors and beyond. Chemical Society Reviews, 48(5), 1272-1341. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8cs00581h

56. Owusu, K. A., Qu, L., Li, J., Wang, Z., Zhao, K., Yang, C., Hercule, K. M., Lin, C., Shi, C., Wei, Q., Zhou, L., & Mai, L. (2017). Low-crystalline iron oxide hydroxide nanoparticle anode for high-performance supercapacitors. Nature Communications, 8(1), 14264. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14264

57. Padalkar, N. S., Shingade, J. A., Katkar, P. K., Park, J., & Park, J. P. (2024). 2D/2D interface engineering of NiCrFe-layered double hydroxide-MXene hybrid architecture for extrinsic supercapacitors. Journal of Energy Storage, 101, 113969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.113969

58. Palaniselvam, T., & Baek, J.-B. (2015). Graphene based 2D-materials for supercapacitors. 2D Materials, 2(3), 032002. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1583/2/3/032002

59. Parvin, N., Merum, D., Kang, M., Joo, S. W., Jung, J. H., & Mandal, T. K. (2025). Recent advances in hybrid supercapacitors: a review of high performance materials and scalable fabrication techniques. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 13(30), 24320-24386. https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ta02887f

60. Purushothaman, K. K., Saravanakumar, B., Babu, I. M., Sethuraman, B., & Muralidharan, G. (2014). Nanostructured CuO/reduced graphene oxide composite for hybrid supercapacitors. RSC Advances, 4(45), 23485. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra02107j

61. Qing, Y., Jiang, Y., Lin, H., Wang, L., Liu, A., Cao, Y., Sheng, R., Guo, Y., Fan, C., Zhang, S., Jia, D., & Fan, Z. (2019). Boosting the supercapacitor performance of activated carbon by constructing overall conductive networks using graphene quantum dots. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 7(11), 6021-6027. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ta11620b

62. Qiu, Z., Wang, Y., Bi, X., Zhou, T., Zhou, J., Zhao, J., Miao, Z., Yi, W., Fu, P., & Zhuo, S. (2018). Biochar-based carbons with hierarchical micro-meso-macro porosity for high rate and long cycle life supercapacitors. Journal of Power Sources, 376, 82-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.11.077

63. Qiu, Z.M., Bai, Y., Gao, Y.D., Liu, C.L., Ru, Y., Pi, Y.C., Zhang, Y.Z., Luo, Y.S., & Pang, H. (2022). MXenes nanocomposites for energy storage and conversion. Rare Metals, 41(4), 1101-1128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-021-01876-0

64. Rahmanifar, M. S., Hemmati, M., Noori, A., El-Kady, M. F., Mousavi, M. F., & Kaner, R. B. (2019). Asymmetric supercapacitors: An alternative to activated carbon negative electrodes based on earth abundant elements. Materials Today Energy, 12, 26-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtener.2018.12.006

65. Ren, K., Liu, Z., Wei, T., & Fan, Z. (2021). Recent Developments of Transition Metal Compounds-Carbon Hybrid Electrodes for High Energy/Power Supercapacitors. Nano-Micro Letters, 13(1), 129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-021-00642-2

66. Salanne, M., Rotenberg, B., Naoi, K., Kaneko, K., Taberna, P.-L., Grey, C. P., Dunn, B., & Simon, P. (2016). Efficient storage mechanisms for building better supercapacitors. Nature Energy, 1(6), 16070. https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2016.70

67. Salman, A., Padmajan Sasikala, S., Kim, I. H., Kim, J. T., Lee, G. S., Kim, J. G., & Kim, S. O. (2020). Tungsten nitride-coated graphene fibers for high-performance wearable supercapacitors. Nanoscale, 12(39), 20239-20249. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0nr06636b

68. Salunkhe, R. R., Kaneti, Y. V., Kim, J., Kim, J. H., & Yamauchi, Y. (2016). Nanoarchitectures for Metal–Organic Framework-Derived Nanoporous Carbons toward Supercapacitor Applications. Accounts of Chemical Research, 49(12), 2796-2806. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00460

69. Semente, A. B.S., Sampaio, R.S., Alves, A.C., Silva, T.M., & Montemor, M.F. (2026). Floating-based degradation characterisation of an asymmetric MnOx supercapacitor prototype. Journal of Power Sources, 682, 240314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2026.240314

70. Shao, Y., El-Kady, M. F., Sun, J., Li, Y., Zhang, Q., Zhu, M., Wang, H., Dunn, B., & Kaner, R. B. (2018). Design and Mechanisms of Asymmetric Supercapacitors. Chemical Reviews, 118(18), 9233-9280. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00252

71. Shen, T., Yang, L., Pam, M. E., Shi, Y., & Yang, H. Y. (2020). Quantum dot-carbonaceous nanohybrid composites: preparation and application in electrochemical energy storage. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 8(43), 22488-22506. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0ta07674k

72. Simon, P., & Gogotsi, Y. (2008). Materials for electrochemical capacitors. Nature Materials, 7(11), 845-854. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2297

73. Simon, P., Gogotsi, Y., & Dunn, B. (2014). Where Do Batteries End and Supercapacitors Begin?. Science, 343(6176), 1210-1211. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1249625

74. Soltanloo, M., Kazazi, M., Yeganeh, S. E. H., Chermahini, M. D., & Mazinani, B. (2020). High-Performance Pseudocapacitive Electrode Based on Electrophoretically Deposited NiCo2O4/MWCNTs Nanocomposite on 316L Stainless Steel. JOM, 72(6), 2235-2244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-020-04082-y

75. Stoller, M. D., & Ruoff, R. S. (2010). Best practice methods for determining an electrode material's performance for ultracapacitors. Energy & Environmental Science, 3(9), 1294. https://doi.org/10.1039/c0ee00074d

76. Tang, Z., Tang, C.H., & Gong, H. (2012). A High Energy Density Asymmetric Supercapacitor from Nano‐architectured Ni(OH)2/Carbon Nanotube Electrodes. Advanced Functional Materials, 22(6), 1272-1278. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201102796

77. Tang, Z., Li, X., Sun, T., Shen, S., Huixin, X., & Yang, J. (2018). Porous crumpled graphene with hierarchical pore structure and high surface utilization efficiency for supercapacitor. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 272, 40-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2018.06.020

78. Thiruppathi, A. R., Sidhureddy, B., Boateng, E., Soldatov, D. V., & Chen, A. (2020). Synthesis and Electrochemical Study of Three-Dimensional Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Energy Applications. Nanomaterials, 10(7), 1295. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10071295

79. Tomboc, G. M., Tesfaye Gadisa, B., Jun, M., Chaudhari, N. K., Kim, H., & Lee, K. (2020). Carbon Transition‐metal Oxide Electrodes: Understanding the Role of Surface Engineering for High Energy Density Supercapacitors. Chemistry – An Asian Journal, 15(11), 1628-1647. https://doi.org/10.1002/asia.202000324

80. Toupin, M., Brousse, T., & Bélanger, D. (2004). Charge Storage Mechanism of MnO2Electrode Used in Aqueous Electrochemical Capacitor. Chemistry of Materials, 16(16), 3184-3190. https://doi.org/10.1021/cm049649j

81. Veerakumar, P., Sangili, A., Manavalan, S., Thanasekaran, P., & Lin, K.-C. (2020). Research Progress on Porous Carbon Supported Metal/Metal Oxide Nanomaterials for Supercapacitor Electrode Applications. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 59(14), 6347-6374. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.9b06010

82. Wang, C., Yuan, X., Ma, Z., Liang, H., & Li, P. (2026). Open-Windowed Hollow Carbon Architectures Enabling Low-Tortuosity Ion Transport for Supercapacitors. Nanomaterials, 16(10), 593. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano16100593

83. Wang, G., Zhang, L., & Zhang, J. (2012). A review of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors. Chemical Society Reviews, 41(2), 797-828. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1cs15060j

84. Wang, H., & Dai, H. (2013). Strongly coupled inorganic–nano-carbon hybrid materials for energy storage. Chemical Society Reviews, 42(7), 3088. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cs35307e

85. Wang, H.-W., Hu, Z.-A., Chang, Y.-Q., Chen, Y.-L., Wu, H.-Y., Zhang, Z.-Y., & Yang, Y.-Y. (2011). Design and synthesis of NiCo2O4–reduced graphene oxide composites for high performance supercapacitors. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 21(28), 10504. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1jm10758e

86. Wang, T., Chen, H. C., Yu, F., Zhao, X.S., & Wang, H. (2019). Boosting the cycling stability of transition metal compounds-based supercapacitors. Energy Storage Materials, 16, 545-573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2018.09.007

87. Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Hou, H., Xu, W., Duan, G., He, S., Liu, K., & Jiang, S. (2021). Recent progress in carbon-based materials for supercapacitor electrodes: a review. Journal of Materials Science, 56(1), 173-200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-020-05157-6

88. Wang, Y., Song, Y., & Xia, Y. (2016). Electrochemical capacitors: mechanism, materials, systems, characterization and applications. Chemical Society Reviews, 45(21), 5925-5950. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5cs00580a

89. Wang, Y., & Xia, Y. (2013). Recent Progress in Supercapacitors: From Materials Design to System Construction. Advanced Materials, 25(37), 5336-5342. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201301932

90. Wei, G., Xu, X., Liu, J., Du, K., Du, J., Zhang, S., An, C., Zhang, J., & Wang, Z. (2017). Carbon quantum dots decorated hierarchical Ni(OH)2 with lamellar structure for outstanding supercapacitor. Materials Letters, 186, 131-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2016.09.126

91. Wu, Y., Yang, Y., Zhao, X., Tan, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, Z., & Ran, F. (2018). A Novel Hierarchical Porous 3D Structured Vanadium Nitride/Carbon Membranes for High-performance Supercapacitor Negative Electrodes. Nano-Micro Letters, 10(4), 63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-018-0217-1

92. Xia, H., Hong, C., Li, B., Zhao, B., Lin, Z., Zheng, M., Savilov, S. V., & Aldoshin, S. M. (2015). Facile Synthesis of Hematite Quantum‐Dot/Functionalized Graphene‐Sheet Composites as Advanced Anode Materials for Asymmetric Supercapacitors. Advanced Functional Materials, 25(4), 627-635. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201403554

93. Xiong, T., Lee, W. S. V., Huang, X., & Xue, J. M. (2017). Mn3O4/reduced graphene oxide based supercapacitor with ultra-long cycling performance. Journal of Materials Chemistry A, 5(25), 12762-12768. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta03319b

94. Xu, Y., Lin, Z., Zhong, X., Huang, X., Weiss, N. O., Huang, Y., & Duan, X. (2014). Holey graphene frameworks for highly efficient capacitive energy storage. Nature Communications, 5(1), 4554. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms5554

95. Yan, J., Fan, Z., Sun, W., Ning, G., Wei, T., Zhang, Q., Zhang, R., Zhi, L., & Wei, F. (2012). Advanced Asymmetric Supercapacitors Based on Ni(OH)2/Graphene and Porous Graphene Electrodes with High Energy Density. Advanced Functional Materials, 22(12), 2632-2641. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201102839

96. Yan, J., Wang, Q., Wei, T., & Fan, Z. (2014). Recent Advances in Design and Fabrication of Electrochemical Supercapacitors with High Energy Densities. Advanced Energy Materials, 4(4), 1300816. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201300816

97. Yang, H., Mu, J., Wang, J., Li, F., Che, H., Huang, Z., Wang, Y., Guo, Z., & Ren, L. (2023). Enhanced interfacial charge transfer via in-situ construction of integrated NiO/NiCo2O4 heterojunction coupled with carbon layer for high-performance supercapacitor and photocatalysis. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 676, 132247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.132247

98. Yang, S., Liu, Y., Hao, Y., Yang, X., Goddard, W. A., Zhang, X. L., & Cao, B. (2018). Oxygen‐Vacancy Abundant Ultrafine Co3O4/Graphene Composites for High‐Rate Supercapacitor Electrodes. Advanced Science, 5(4), 1700659. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700659

99. Yuan, R., Sun, S., Ling, S., Zhou, T., He, H., Li, X., & Zhang, C. (2024). Solvent exchange assisted 3D printing of low tortuosity thick electrode for high areal energy density and power density supercapacitors. Carbon, 218, 118737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2023.118737

100. Zhi, M., Xiang, C., Li, J., Li, M., & Wu, N. (2013). Nanostructured carbon–metal oxide composite electrodes for supercapacitors: a review. Nanoscale, 5(1), 72-88. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2nr32040a